Is Christianity a Mystery Cult?

Over the years, Christianity has often been compared to the mystery religions of ancient Greece and Rome, both by Christians wishing to emphasize the esoteric nature of their religion and by opponents of Christianity who claim that the resemblance between Christianity and mystery religions of antiquity proves that Christianity is not of divine origin.

Christianity certainly has many important features in common with Greco-Roman mystery religions, but there are some crucial differences between Christianity and mystery religions that really set Christianity apart. Perhaps the most notable difference between Christianity and the mystery religions is Christianity’s attitude towards proselytism.

Interestingly, it does seem that some mystery cult-like tendencies did come to dominate Christianity in late antiquity. Nonetheless, Christianity itself is not inherently a mystery religion and I don’t think anyone could accurately describe contemporary Christianity as a mystery cult.

A comment about terminology

The English word mystery comes from the ancient Greek second-declension neuter noun μυστήριον (mystḗrion), meaning “a secret rite known only to initiates of a particular cult.” This word comes from the first-declension masculine noun μύστης (mýstēs), meaning “initiate.”

The English word cult comes from the Latin word cultus, the perfect passive participle of the third-conjugation verb colo, meaning “to protect” or “to venerate.” The word has traditionally been used neutrally to refer to the religious veneration of a particular deity or group of deities. The word is still commonly used in this way by modern scholars when talking about ancient religious groups that centered around the veneration of a particular deity or a particular group of deities.

Unfortunately, in relatively recent times, the word cult has developed negative connotations in popular usage and it is often used to refer a group of people with religious beliefs seen as strange or deviant. It often carries the connotation that the group’s leaders are exploitive of their followers.

This is not how modern scholars generally use the term when talking about ancient religious groups. When I use this term, I am using it to describe a group centered around the worship of a particular deity or group of deities—not necessarily a group with bizarre or deviant beliefs.

I should also note that, in this article, I will only be examining broad similarities between Christianity and mystery cults in general; I will not be investigating specific parallels that people claim exist between the stories of Jesus recorded in the gospels and stories about pre-Christian deities. I’ve already written articles about the alleged parallels between Jesus and Horus and Jesus and Dionysos that you can read if you like. I will probably write more articles of that variety at a future date.

ABOVE: Photograph from Wikimedia Commons of an Apulian red-figure hydria by the Varrese Painter dated to sometime around 340 BC, depicting scenes related to the Eleusinian Mysteries

Conversion as a transformative personal experience

In the ancient world, participation in traditional public religion was mandatory; everyone was required to recognize and worship the deities that were recognized by the state. Worshipping the gods was part of civic life; it wasn’t thought of as personal.

Most mystery cults in the ancient Roman world were tied to traditional public religion, but they differed from public religion in a number of important ways. Joining a mystery cult was optional. People who were members of mystery cults were members of those cults because they chose to be, because they wanted something more than what traditional public religion had to offer.

Partly as a result of their optional nature, mystery cults were much more personal than public religion. Members of mystery cults believed they knew secrets about the deity that they worshipped that only a few other people were permitted to know. They also believed that, in some sense, they had a personal relationship with the deity around whom the cult centered.

The most vivid description we have of a person converting to a mystery religion comes from the ancient Roman novel The Golden Ass, which was written in Latin by the North African novelist Lucius Apuleius Madaurensis (lived c. 124 – c. 170 AD). In the novel, the main character Lucius is accidentally transformed into a donkey. After Lucius faces many trials and many misadventures, the goddess Isis personally appears to him in a dream to tell him that, the following day, one of her priests will hold out a crown of roses and, if he eats this crown of roses, he will be restored to human form.

Sure enough, the next day, Lucius is present at a procession for the goddess Isis. He eats the roses the goddess instructed him to eat and he is miraculously restored to human form. Lucius thereafter becomes a devotee of Isis. He thereafter becomes a priest of Isis. After returning to Rome, Lucius continues to worship Isis. Then Isis appears to him in a dream and tells him that he must be initiated into her mysteries. Thus, because of the goddess’s command to him personally, Lucius undergoes initiation into the cult of Isis.

Obviously, there were no real physical transformations that took place at real-life processions of Isis, but Apuleius’s account of Lucius’s conversion in The Golden Ass does seem to illustrate an important point, which is that conversion to a mystery cult was seen as a transformative personal experience.

ABOVE: Illustration by the French illustrator Jean de Bosschère of the scene from Apuleius’s novel The Golden Ass in which Lucius is transformed back into a human at a procession in honor of the goddess Isis

Like the mystery cults of the ancient world, Christianity emphasizes the idea of conversion as a transformative personal experience. Most notably, in the Gospel of John 3:3–5, Jesus is portrayed as teaching that, in order to enter the kingdom of God, a person must be “born from above.” The passage reads as follows in the original Greek:

“ἀπεκρίθη ἰησοῦς καὶ εἶπεν αὐτῶ, ἀμὴν ἀμὴν λέγω σοι, ἐὰν μή τις γεννηθῇ ἄνωθεν, οὐ δύναται ἰδεῖν τὴν βασιλείαν τοῦ θεοῦ. λέγει πρὸς αὐτὸν [ὁ] νικόδημος, πῶς δύναται ἄνθρωπος γεννηθῆναι γέρων ὤν; μὴ δύναται εἰς τὴν κοιλίαν τῆς μητρὸς αὐτοῦ δεύτερον εἰσελθεῖν καὶ γεννηθῆναι; ἀπεκρίθη ἰησοῦς, ἀμὴν ἀμὴν λέγω σοι, ἐὰν μή τις γεννηθῇ ἐξ ὕδατος καὶ πνεύματος, οὐ δύναται εἰσελθεῖν εἰς τὴν βασιλείαν τοῦ θεοῦ.”

Here is how the passage is translated in the New Revised Standard Version (NRSV):

“Jesus answered him, ‘Very truly, I tell you, no one can see the kingdom of God without being born from above.’ Nicodemus said to him, ‘How can anyone be born after having grown old? Can one enter a second time into the mother’s womb and be born?’ Jesus answered, ‘Very truly, I tell you, no one can enter the kingdom of God without being born of water and Spirit.’”

In the original Greek, there is a bit of a play on words here; the phrase “γεννηθῇ ἄνωθεν” can either mean “born again” or “born from above.” In this passage, Jesus clearly means to say “born from above,” but Nicodemus misinterprets him as saying that a person must be “born again.”

This idea of conversion as a personal transformation is one that Christianity and the mystery cults of antiquity have in common.

ABOVE: Nicodemus and Jesus on a Rooftop, painted in 1899 by the American painter Henry Ossawa Tanner

Promises of special benefits

Mystery cults in the ancient Mediterranean world promised to bring initiates into a special, personal relationship with the particular deity or group of deities that the cult centered around. This personal relationship with the deity was usually associated with special benefits. The Christian message of salvation bears a notable resemblance to the kinds of benefits that were promised by mystery cults throughout the ancient Mediterranean world.

The idea of salvation through loyalty to Jesus developed very early in the history of Christianity. It appears in the seven authentic surviving epistles of the apostle Paul, which were probably all written between c. 49 AD and c. 57 AD. Paul declares in his Epistle to the Romans, which he most likely wrote at some point between late 55 AD and early 57 AD. Paul writes in the Epistle to the Romans 5:12–19, as translated in the New Revised Standard Version (NRSV):

“Therefore, just as sin came into the world through one man [i.e. Adam], and death came through sin, and so death spread to all because all have sinned—sin was indeed in the world before the law, but sin is not reckoned when there is no law. Yet death exercised dominion from Adam to Moses, even over those whose sins were not like the transgression of Adam, who is a type of the one who was to come.”

“But the free gift is not like the trespass. For if the many died through the one man’s trespass, much more surely have the grace of God and the free gift in the grace of the one man, Jesus Christ, abounded for the many. And the free gift is not like the effect of the one man’s sin. For the judgment following one trespass brought condemnation, but the free gift following many trespasses brings justification. If, because of the one man’s trespass, death exercised dominion through that one, much more surely will those who receive the abundance of grace and the free gift of righteousness exercise dominion in life through the one man, Jesus Christ.”

“Therefore just as one man’s trespass led to condemnation for all, so one man’s act of righteousness leads to justification and life for all. For just as by the one man’s disobedience the many were made sinners, so by the one man’s obedience the many will be made righteous.”

Here Paul is essentially saying that Adam brought sin into the world and, on account of Adam’s sin, all people throughout history who are not loyal to Jesus have been ruled by sin. Paul, however, goes on to declare that Jesus’s death on the cross has brought salvation as a “free gift” for all people who have loyalty to Jesus.

This doctrine of salvation is most famously expressed in the Gospel of John 3:16–18, which reads as follows, as translated in the NRSV:

“For God so loved the world that he gave his only Son, so that everyone who believes in him may not perish but may have eternal life. Indeed, God did not send the Son into the world to condemn the world, but in order that the world might be saved through him. Those who believe in him are not condemned; but those who do not believe are condemned already, because they have not believed in the name of the only Son of God.”

Here the Gospel of John is presenting Jesus as saying that all those who place their trust and loyalty in Jesus will be given eternal life.

Christianity, however, differs from most mystery cults of the ancient Mediterranean world in terms of the specific benefits that Christians were promising. Most ancient mystery cults did not promise their initiates “eternal life.” In fact, most mystery cults seem to have mainly promised their initiates benefits in life—not benefits in the afterlife.

ABOVE: Photograph from Wikimedia Commons of a Mithraic tauroctony dating to around the middle of the second century AD or thereabouts

A focus on eastern, non-Roman deities

Ancient mystery religions in the Roman Empire usually centered around deities that were worshipped in lands that were seen by the Romans as “eastern” and “exotic.” For instance, some of the most prominent mystery cult deities were from far eastern lands such as Greece, Egypt, Phrygia, Syria, and Persia. Here are some examples of some of the most prominent mystery cults in the Roman world and the deities they were associated with:

• The Eleusinian Mysteries centered around the Greek goddesses Demeter and Persephone.
• The Dionysian Mysteries centered around the Greek god Dionysos.
• The mysteries of Kybele centered around the Phrygian goddess Kybele and her consort Attis.
• The mysteries of Isis centered around the Egyptian goddess Isis, and, to a lesser extent, her husband Osiris and her son Harpokrates (Horus).
• The mysteries of Serapis centered around the Greco-Egyptian deity Serapis, a syncretized deity combining aspects of the Greek gods Hades and Dionysos and the Egyptian gods Osiris and Apis.
• Mithraism centered around the god Mithras, who was of Persian origin (although the Roman version of Mithras differs markedly from the older Persian deity).
• Orphism centered around the Greek mythological figure Orpheus.
• The cult of Sabazios centered around the Thrakian and Phrygian god Sabazios.
• The mysteries of Sol Invictus centered around a syncretism of the Roman sun god Sol Incivtus (“the Unconquered Sun”) and the Syrian sun-god Elagabalos.
• The mysteries of Atargatis centered around the Syrian goddess Atargatis.

There is a clear pattern that mystery religions in the Roman Empire tended to be centered around eastern deities. Christianity fits this pattern because it is centered around the Jewish God Yahweh, whom Christians believe became incarnate as Jesus.

With the intense fascination that existed in the Roman Empire for eastern deities and eastern religious practices, it is hardly a surprise that a religion centered around the Jewish God managed to take off.

ABOVE: Photograph from Wikimedia Commons of a first-century BC Roman marble statue from Formia of the Phrygian goddess Kybele, who had her own mystery cult. Mystery cults tended to focus on eastern deities who were perceived by the Romans as exotic.

What sets Christianity apart from the mystery religions of the ancient world

That being said, while Christianity may have much in common with mystery religions, Christianity itself is not a mystery religion and it actually differs from mystery religions in a number of very significant ways that are often overlooked. Most notably, from almost the very beginning, Christianity has not generally kept its major beliefs and practices hidden, but rather actively advertised them. From almost its very inception, Christianity has actively sought out converts from all backgrounds and all walks of life.

The apostle Paul describes his many travels throughout the Roman world and his efforts to convert people to Christianity in his seven authentic surviving epistles. Paul believed that the message of Jesus needed to be shared with the Gentiles of all nations so that the Gentiles could be saved. It is clear from Paul’s epistles that he definitely wasn’t trying to keep Christian beliefs secret.

The Gospel of Matthew is the second-oldest surviving gospel. It was most likely written in around the 70s or 80s AD. It contains a famous passage known as “the Great Commission” in which Jesus is presented as explicitly telling his disciples that they must spread his message far and wide to all the nations of the Earth and convert as many people as possible to his teachings. The Gospel of Matthew 28:16–20 reads as follows, as translated in the NRSV:

“Now the eleven disciples went to Galilee, to the mountain to which Jesus had directed them. When they saw him, they worshiped him; but some doubted. And Jesus came and said to them, ‘All authority in heaven and on earth has been given to me. Go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, and teaching them to obey everything that I have commanded you. And remember, I am with you always, to the end of the age.’”

The Book of the Acts of the Apostles, which was most likely written in around the 90s AD or thereabouts, is filled with stories about the apostles spreading the good news of Christ’s resurrection and converting people to Christianity. Indeed, the entire second half of the Book of the Acts of the Apostles focuses on Paul’s missionary journeys.

It is this zeal for proselytism that absolutely sets Christianity apart from all the mystery religions of the ancient Greco-Roman world. The initiates of all mystery religions in ancient Greece and Rome were all sworn to keep the beliefs and practices of the religion absolutely secret. The reason why they are called “mystery cults” is precisely because cults’ beliefs and practices were known only to their initiates.

Mystery religions were like secret clubs; they were highly exclusive and they did not actively seek out converts in the same aggressive manner as Christianity. New initiates were mostly drawn from the close circles of people who were already initiated. Outsiders who were not familiar to members of the cult were generally kept as far as possible.

The closest thing we have to a modern-day mystery religion is probably not Christianity, but rather Freemasonry. Very much unlike Christians, Freemasons are sworn to keep their organization’s teachings and rituals absolutely secret.

ABOVE: Photograph from Wikimedia Commons of a stained glass window depicting the Great Commission from the Gospel of Matthew from the Cathedral Parish of Saint Patrick in El Paso, Texas

Ancient writers describing Christianity as a mystery cult

Christianity differs from mystery cults of the ancient world in significant ways. Despite this, however, many non-Christians in the ancient Roman world do seem to have regarded Christianity as a mystery cult. For instance, the skeptical Syrian satirist Loukianos of Samosata (lived c. 125 – after c. 180 AD), describes Christianity using the terminology of a mystery cult in his satirical letter The Passing of Peregrinos. Loukianos writes in section 12 of the letter, as translated by A. M. Harmon for the Loeb Classical Library:

“It was then that he [i.e. Peregrinos] learned the wondrous lore of the Christians, by associating with their priests and scribes in Palestine. And—how else could it be?—in a trice he made them all look like children, for he was prophet, cult-leader, head of the synagogue, and everything, all by himself. He interpreted and explained some of their books and even composed many, and they revered him as a god, made use of him as a lawgiver, and set him down as a protector, next after that other, to be sure, whom they still worship, the man who was crucified in Palestine because he introduced this new cult into the world.”

The Greek philosopher and controversialist Kelsos explicitly described Christianity as a mystery cult in his anti-Christian polemic The True Word, which he most likely wrote sometime in around the late 170s AD or thereabouts. Kelsos’s original polemic has not survived, but Against Kelsos, a lengthy response to it written in around 248 AD by the Christian theologian and apologist Origenes of Alexandria (lived c. 184 – c. 253 AD) has survived. In Against Kelsos 6.24, Origenes writes, as translated by Frederick Crombie:

“After the instance borrowed from the Mithraic mysteries, Celsus declares that he who would investigate the Christian mysteries, along with the aforesaid Persian, will, on comparing the two together, and on unveiling the rites of the Christians, see in this way the difference between them.”

Evidently, then, some people in the ancient world clearly regarded Christianity as a mystery cult.

ABOVE: Greek manuscript of the apologetic treatise Against Kelsos by Origenes of Alexandria, which preserves a reference to Christianity as a mystery cult by the anti-Christian writer Kelsos

Christianity and the mystery impulse

Christianity did develop some secretive tendencies in antiquity that do resemble the secrecy of mystery cults. In the Gospel of Mark 4:10–12, Jesus is portrayed as telling the disciples that he teaches in parables so that only the elect few will understand his teachings. The passage reads, as translated in the NRSV:

“When he was alone, those who were around him along with the twelve asked him about the parables. And he said to them, ‘To you has been given the secret of the kingdom of God, but for those outside, everything comes in parables; in order that

“they may indeed look, but not perceive,
and may indeed listen, but not understand;
so that they may not turn again and be forgiven.”’”

In later times, Gnostic Christian sects taught that there were secret teachings of Jesus that only the spiritually gifted could know. This idea that Jesus had additional secret teachings that weren’t taught to ordinary Christians shows up in the very first line of the apocryphal Gospel of Thomas, which was probably written in around the early second century AD, shortly after the canonical gospels.

This idea of “Christian mysteries” was not limited to sects whose teachings were later deemed unorthodox; it even appears in proto-orthodox Christian writings. For instance, the Church Father Origenes of Alexandria says that, although the basics of Christianity were shared openly, there were certain “μυστήρια τῆς πίστεως” (mystḗria tês písteōs), or “mysteries of the faith,” which he describes as being only understood by initiates.

For Origenes, however, these “mysteries” did not come from secret teachings of Jesus contained in apocryphal writings, but rather from the allegorical interpretation of the texts included in the standard Biblical canon. He held that the mysteries could be revealed to the world through exegesis and hermeneutics. Nonetheless, the idea that there were “mysteries of the faith” at all shows the influence of mystery religions on early Christianity.

By the fourth century AD, the idea of disciplina arcani, which held that the more complex metaphysical teachings of Christianity needed to be kept hidden from non-Christians and catechumens because they might misunderstand these teachings and fall into heresy, had come to dominate in Christian circles. In a sense, then, the mystery impulse did kind of take over, although it never took over completely.

ABOVE: Imaginative depiction of Origenes of Alexandria from an illustrated manuscript of In numeros homilia XXVII dating to c. 1160 AD